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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


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To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 

UNIVERSITY    OF    ILLINOIS    LIBRARY    AT    URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


AUG  1 


1979 


L161—O.1096 


40 


WISCONSIN    TEA 


.S   FOE   RURAL   TEACHERS. 


Wisconsin  high  schools  h 


\s'  training  courses  have  been  estab- 


Location  o  schools. 

Countie 

Black  River  Falls. . 
Chilton 

Jackson 

Calumet 

Chippewa 

Forest 

Lafayette 

Iowa 

Pierce 

Grant 

Florence 

Trempealeau. 

Burnett 

Brown 

Jefferson 

Dodge 

Clark 

St.  Croix.... 
Winnebago . 
Sheboygan.. 
Fond  du  Lac 

Shawano 

Washburn . . 

Dane 

Monroe 

Bayfield .... 
Waukesha. . 
Marquette. . 

Chippewa  Falls 

Crandon 

Darlington 

Dodgeville 

Ellsworth . 

Fennimore . . . 

Florence 

Galesville 

Grantsburg 

Green  Bay 

Hayward 

Jefferson 

May  ville 

Neills  ville ., 

New  Richmond 

Omro 

Plymouth 

Ripon 

Shawano 

Spooner 

Stoughton 

Tomah 

Washburn 

Waukesha 

Westfield 

Total1 

i  The  total  enrollment  for  the  j 
were  265  graduated— 19  men  and* 


bnt, 1913-14. 

Graduates,  1914. 

nale. 

Total. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

26 

26 

0 

1 

1 

13 

16 

0 

0 

0 

41 

41 

0 

15 

15 

8 

11 

0 

0 

0 

22 

22 

0 

0 

0 

26 

26 

0 

3 

3 

24 

24 

0 

2 

2 

13 

13 

0 

1 

1 

15 

16 

0 

0 

0 

36 

39 

0 

5 

5 

13 

15 

0 

1 

1 

21 

21 

0 

0 

0 

11 

13 

0 

0 

0 

30 

31 

1 

3 

4 

19 

20 

0 

8 

8 

16 

18 

0 

1 

1 

36 

36 

0 

8 

8 

25 

25 

0 

66 

6 

30 

36 

2 

17 

19 

27 

29 

0 

1 

1 

10 

11 

1 

2 

3 

14 

15 

0 

2 

2 

23 

24 

0 

5 

5 

30 

30 

0 

4 

'    4 

27 

27 

0 

7 

7 

9 

12 

0 

1 

1 

O 

> 

23 

0 

0 

0 

620 

4 

93 

97 

lese,  59  were  men  and  699  women.    There 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1916,  NO.  18 


PUBLIC  FACILITIES  FOR 
EDUCATING  THE  ALIEN 


PREPARED  IN  THE  DIVISION  OF  IMMIGRANT  EDUCATION 

BY 

FREDERIC  ERNEST  FARRINGTON 

BUREAU    OF    EDUCATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1916 


ADDITIONAL  COPIES 

OF  THIS  PUBLICATION  MAY  BE  PROCURED  FROM 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

AT 

10  CENTS  PER    COPY 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Chapter  I. — The  problem 7 

Chapter  II. — Legal  aspects 12 

Chapter  III. — Present  conditions 20 

Table  1. — Foreign-born  white  population  by  States 33 

Table  2. — Illiteracy  among  foreign -bom  whites  by  States 33 

Table  3. — Inability  to  speak  English,  among  foreign-born  whites  by  States 34 

Table  4. — School  attendance  among  foreign -born  whites  by  age  groups 34 

Table  5. — Foreign-born  whites:  Inability  to  speak  English,  illiteracy,  and  school 

attendance,  by  age  groups  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole 35 

Table  6.— Statistics  relating  to  evening  schools,  1914-15 36 

3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 

Washington,  August  10,  1916. 

Sir:  In  1910  there  were  in  the  United  States  more  than  thirteen 
millions  of  foreign-born  men,  women,  and  children,  and  more  than 
four-fifths  of  those  coming  hi  that  year  were  from  southern  and 
eastern  European  countries  and  other  countries  in  which  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  is  very  large.  Nearly  three  millions  of  these 
foreign-born  men,  women,  and  children  over  10  years  of  age  were 
unable  to  speak  the  English  language,  and  more  than  one  million  six 
hundred  thousand  were  unable  to  read  and  write  in  any  language. 
The  four  years  following  the  census  year  of  1910  added  largely  to  all 
these  classes,  the  average  immigration  for  these  years  being  more 
than  one  million  annually.  The  tide  has  receded  since  the  beginning 
of  the  war  in  Europe,  but  it  will  probably  attain  its  former  level  and 
more  when  the  war  is  over. 

For  their  good  and  our  own  we  may  not  let  these  people  remain 
among  us  either  as  citizens  or  aliens  without  giving  them  adequate 
opportunity  and  every  proper  inducement  to  learn  the  language  of 
the  country  and  whatever  else  may  be  necessary  to  enable  them  to 
understand  the  best  in  American  social,  industrial,  and  civic  life. 
A  general  feeling  of  the  importance  of  this  problem  has  given  rise  to 
three  questions: 

1.  What  is  now  being  done  for  the  education  of  those  who 
come  to  our  shores  after  having  passed  the  age  of  compulsory 
school  attendance  ? 

2.  What  should  be  done  for  them  ? 

3.  How  can  it  best  be  done  ? 

To  help  toward  the  answer  of  the  first  of  these  questions,  I  recom- 
mend the  publication  of  the  accompanying  manuscript,  prepared  by 
Dr.  Frederic  Ernest  Farrington,  of  the  Division  of  Immigrant  Educa- 
tion in  this  bureau.  Other  manuscripts  intended  to  assist  in  answer- 
ing the  second  and  third  of  these  questions  are  in  preparation  and 
will  be  submitted  for  publication  later. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


PUBLIC  FACILITIES  FOR  EDUCATING  THE  ALIEN. 


Chapter  I. 
THE  PROBLEM. 


Census  returns  in  the  last  two  decennial  reports  have  brought 
out  with  increasing  force  the  growing  importance  of  the  alien  prob- 
lem.1 Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  to-day  is  an  immigrant 
or  the  descendant  of  an  immigrant.  Proximity  to  the  ocean-crosser 
in  point  of  time  is  the  chief  factor  which  fixes  the  position  of  each 
one  in  the  categories  of  the  census  classification. 

A  century  and  a  half  ago  it  was  finally  determined  that  English 
should  thenceforth  be  the  language  of  the  land.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  colonial  period  English  had  been  the  language  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  arrivals  from  across  the  sea,  and  it  continued 
so  to  be  for  many  years  thereafter.  Subsequent  arrivals  for  many 
decades  accepted  unquestioningly  the  responsibility  of  learning  the 
language  of  their  adopted  country.  So  long  as  the  newcomers  were 
of  Teutonic  stock  the  problem  of  educating  the  aliens  presented 
no  particular  difficulty.  They  all  came  from  countries  where  learn- 
ing occupied  an  honorable  place  in  the  minds  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, and  the  problem  of  illiteracy  was  almost  negligible.  In  fact 
in  some  of  the  countries  it  was  only  a  small  proportion  of  what  it 
was  among  the  native-white  population  of  America  at  the  same  time. 

With  the  change  in  the  character  of  the  immigrant  tide,  however, 
when  immigrants  began  to  come  from  southern  and  eastern  Europe, 
new  difficulties  presented  themselves.  In  the  decade  1851-1860, 
the  arrivals  from  southern  and  eastern  Europe  formed  only  about  5 
per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  immigrants.  In  the  following  decade 
this  proportion  had  doubled;  in  another  decade  it  had  doubled 
again;  and  then  for  20  years  it  remained  almost  stationary.  Reduced 
to  figures,  this  means  5  per  cent  in  1851-1860;  11  per  cent  in  1861-70; 
26  per  cent  in  1871-1880;  and  28  per  cent  in  1881-1890.  Then  the 
flood  from  eastern  and  southern  Europe  burst  forth  with  increased 
force,  nearly  doubling  in  the  following  decade;  and  finally,  in  the 
decade  1901-1910,  it  increased  nearly  by  half. 

1  Table  1  shows  the  number  of  foreign-born  whites,  in  each  State,  together  with  their  per  cent  of  the  total 
population. 

7 


8  PUBLIC    FACILITIES   FOR  EDUCATING   THE  ALIEN. 

This  change  is  shown  schematically  in  the  subjoined  diagram: 


NORTHERN    AND    WESTERN    EUROPE 


SOUTHERN    AND    EASTERN    EUROPE    Wfflffl', 
AND    OTHER    COUNTRIES 


190I 

TO 

I910 


is5i        i86i        ieji      isei       iaei 

TO  TO  TO  TO  TO 

iseo      1670     ieso     ieso      ooo 

Diagram  1.— Immigration  into  the  United  States,  1S51-1910, 
showing  per  cent  of  increase  from  the  less  literate  nations. 

Thus  in  the  decade,  1891-1900,  well  over  half  the  immigration 
tide  arose  in  the  countries  of  southern  and  eastern  Europe,  and  10 
years  later  these  same  countries  were  responsible  for  over  three- 
fourths  of  our  new  arrivals.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
the  sense  of  responsibility  for  acquiring  a  facility  in  the  use  of  English 
changed  inversely  as  the  number  of  immigrants  from  the  less  literate 
nations.  In  1890  over  half  the  population  of  one  of  the  kingdoms 
of  the  Dual  Monarchy,  from  which  a  considerable  proportion  of 
immiorants  comes,  were  classed  as  illiterate.  Statistics  for  1910  show 
this  figure  still  to  be  over  33  per  cent.  Other  illiteracy  figures  for 
that  eastern  section  of  Europe  range  from  Austria  with  13.7  per  cent, 
Roumania  with  60.6  per  cent,  and  Russia  with  69  per  cent,  to  Servia 


THE    PROBLEM.  9 

with  78. 9  per  cent  of  her  population  unable  to  read  and  write  their 
own  language. 

If  it  is  justifiable  to  assume  that  the  literacy  of  the  immigrants 
from  these  countries  is  measured  by  that  of  the  population  of  the 
countries,  it  is  evident  that  the  United  States  must  assume  an  addi- 
tional burden  in  return  for  economic  aid  derived  from  their  labor 
in  order  to  raise  these  newcomers  to  the  literacy  level  of  its  own 
people,  which  at  best  is  quite  too  low  even  for  the  native-born 
whites. 

According  to  the  census  of  1910/  there  were  1,650,361  foreign- 
born  whites  over  10  years  of  age  who  could  not  read  or  write  in  any 
language,  a  number  representing  12.7  per  cent  of  the  entire  foreign- 
born  white  population  of  the  country.2  In  contrast  with  the  illit- 
eracy among  the  native  whites,  3  per  cent,  this  figure  is  disquietingly 
large. 

When  inability  to  speak  English  is  considered,  an  even  more 
serious  situation  is  disclosed,  for  in  1910  practically  three  million 
foreign-born  white  persons  in  the  United  States  10  years  of  age  and 
over  (to  be  exact,  2,953,011)  were  ignorant  of  the  language  of  the 
country.3  While  it  is  true  that  some  of  these  were  merely  sojourners 
in  the  land  who  would  ultimately  find  their  way  back  whence  they 
came,4  it  is  evident  that  during  their  stay  in  the  United  States  they 
are  subject  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  country  and  must  be 
held  responsible  for  obeying  these  laws  and  regulations.  Even 
though  they  may  feel  no  personal  need  for  acquiring  English  the 
welfare  and  safety  of  the  Nation  make  it  imperative  that  this  obli- 
gation be  forced  upon  them.  The  more  these  foreigners  settle  in 
groups  among  their  own  kind,  the  less  likely  are  they  to  learn  English 
of  their  own  accord,  and  the  more  necessary  does  it  become  that 
municipal,  State,  or  National  authorities  begin  seriously  to  consider 
the  problem. 

In  1910  the  2,953,011  foreign-born  white  persons  in  the  United 
States  10  years  of  age  and  over  who  were  unable  to  speak  English 
represented  22.8  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-born  population  of  the 
country.  While  these  are  scattered  throughout  all  the  States  of  the 
Union,  they  are  largely  found  in  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the 
country.  More  than  two-thirds  of  them  are  in  the  States  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  Ohio,  New  Jersey, 
Texas,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan.  With  the  exception  of  Texas,  the 
States  just  noted  are  all  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

i  In  the  subsequent  pages  of  this  bulletin  all  figures  relating  to  population,  size  of  communities,  illiterac-*, 
inability  to  speak  English,  and  the  like  for  the  United  States  are  based  upon  the  returns  of  the  census  for 
1910. 

2  For  illiteracy  figures  amon»  foreign-born  whites  far  the  various  States,  see  Table  2,  p.  33. 

3  For  figures  relating  to  inability  to  speak  English  among  foreign-born  whites  for  the  various  States,  see 
Table  3. 

4  From  the  most  trustworthy  information  available,  this  represents  about  one-third  the  total  number. 

46803°— 16 2 


10 


PUBLIC   FACILITIES   FOR   EDUCATING    THE   ALIEN. 


Each  of  tliem  has  more  than  100,000  non-English-speaking  foreign- 
ers, with  numbers  ranging  from  102,000  in  Michigan  to  597,000  in 
New  York.  Whereas  these  States  have  67.6  per  cent  of  the  total 
foreign-bom  white  population  of  the  country,  they  have  73.6  per 
cent  of  those  unable  to  speak  English.  In  other  words,  these  figures 
would  seem  to  strengthen  the  assumption  that  massed  groups  of 
foreigners  engender  a  disinclination  to  learn  English.  As  numbers 
increase,  the  problem  increases  in  more  than  arithmetical  ratio. 
Census  figures,  which  show  that  the  number  of  persons  unable  to 
speak  English  increased  1,735,731  between  1900  and  1910,  or  142.6 
per  cent,  as  opposed  to  an  increase  of  29.3  per  cent  in  the  total  num- 
ber, should  therefore  provide  food  for  serious  thought. 

Consideration  of  the  age  distribution  of  these  people  suggests  an  even 
more  serious  condition,  for  of  the  nearly  three  million  who  can  not 
use  the  English  language  as  a  medium  of  communication,  2,565,612 
are  over  21  years  of  age,  in  other  words,  well  beyond  the  compulsory 
school-attendance  age  and  therefore  beyond  the  period  when  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  events  they  are  likely  to  attend  school  in  order 
to  acquire  the  common-school  branches.  Of  the  two  and  one-half 
million  over  21  years  of  age  who  can  not  speak  English,  only  35,614 
are  in  school,  a  paltry  1.3  per  cent.1  This  situation  is  shown  graphi- 
cally and  forcefully  in  the  following  diagram: 


UNITED$TATESSCH00LjnBjDA^ 

&/7SI/S/9/0 


m 

Number 
Attend  i  no 
School    ° 

35.614 


Total  Number     2.565.612 
Attending  School      35,614 


Diagram  2. 


Handicapped  by  a  language  disability,  they  not  only  find  barriers 
in  the  way  of  securing  ready  employment,  but  they  fall  into  the 
hands  of  more  or  less  unscrupulous  fellow  countrymen  who  exploit 
their  language  ignorance,  or  they  become  a  ready  prey  to  the  agitator 

i  For  figures  showing  school  attendance  among  foreign-born  whites  by  age  groups  for  the  various  States, 
see  Table  4. 


THE   PEOBLEM. 


11 


of  smooth  speech  and  are  thus  likely  to  become  a  menace  to  the  wel- 
fare of  both  Commonwealth  and  Nation. 

The  immediate  significance  of  this  is  suggested  by  a  study  of  the 
per  cent  of  males  of  militia  age  (18  to  44  years)  in  New  England. 
The  figures  in  the  following  table  are  represented  graphically  in  the 
diagram  shown  below: 

Total  males  of  militia  age  (IS  to  44  years)  in  New  England. 


Classes. 


Per  cent. 


Native  parentage 

Negro  and  others 

Foreign  or  mixed  parentage 
Foreign-born  white 


34.3 

1.4 

24.4 

39.9 


4% 

NEQRO  AND 

OTHERS 

20.2/11 


Diagram  3.— Distribution  of  males  of  militia  age  (is  to  44  years)  in  New  England  according  to  nativity 

and  parentage. 

Only  less  striking  are  the  corresponding  data  for  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States. 

Since  complete  citizenship  should  be  the  ultimate  desire  of  every 
foreigner  who  settles  in  the  country  permanently,  there  is  an  added 
reason  for  putting  the  acquisition  of  the  speech  of  the  land  within 
reach  of  all,  for  according  to  Federal  regulations  ability  to  read  and 
speak  English  is  demanded  before  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citi- 
zenship may  be  conferred. 


Chapter  II. 
LEGAL  ASPECTS. 


Public  schools  are  universal  throughout  all  the  States  of  the 
Union.  They  have  been  established  in  response  to  the  deep-seated 
conviction  that  education  is  essential  for  individual  happiness  and 
efficiency,  for  civic  welfare,  and  for  national  prosperity.  This  con- 
viction has  been  embodied  in  constitution  and  statute  in  order  to 
guarantee  the  continuance  of  a  system  of  schools  for  the  people  of  the 
land,  and  to-day  scarcely  a  hamlet  in  the  whole  country  lacks  facilities 
for  providing  the  youth  with  the  means  for  further  material,  intellec- 
tual, and  spiritual  progress. 

"People"  in  the  sense  above,  however,  has  contemplated  the 
American  people.  It  is  only  when  one  realizes  that  not  all  the 
people  of  this  country  are  fundamentally  American,  with  American 
standards  and  American  ideals,  that  it  becomes  apparent  that  the 
United  States  has  a  large  group  of  residents  who  are  not  affected  by 
the  educational  organization  established  by  the  fathers.  Whereas 
the  law  has  safeguarded  the  native  population,  what  provision  does 
it  make  for  assuring  that  the  foreigner  should  have  an  educational 
equipment  comparable  to  that  within  reach  of  the  native  born,  at 
least  to  the  minimum  safety  limit  imposed  upon  the  native  popula- 
tion ? 

From  the  legal  standpoint,  immigrant  education  deals  with  three 
quite  distinct  groups:  (1)  Children  who  come  within  the  provisions 
of  the  compulsory  school-attendance  law  (usually  up  to  14  or  15 
years) ;  (2)  youth  of  both  sexes  between  the  close  of  the  compulsory 
school-attendance  period  and  the  close  of  the  school-age  period  (18, 20, 
or  21  years,  according  to  the  State);  and  (3)  all  above  the  age  limits 
just  indicated,  who  may  be  termed  adults  from  the  school-age  point 
of  view. 

Children  of  the  first  group  present  no  peculiar  problem.  They 
are  taken  care  of  more  or  less  effectively  by  the  compulsory  school- 
attendance  law,  which  affects  all  children  alike.  In  communities 
where  the  machinery  for  the  enforcement  of  this  law  is  not  altogether 
efficient,  undoubtedly  too  many  escape  entirely,  especially  if  they 
come  in  toward  the  end  of  the  compulsory  period.  Under  a  co- 
operative arrangement  between  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion and  the  Bureau  of  Immigration  of  the  Department  of  Labor, 
12 


LEGAL   ASPECTS.  13 

commissioners  of  immigration  at  the  ports  of  entry  are  notifying  the 
various  school  authorities  throughout  the  country  of  the  arrival  of 
immigrant  children  between  the  ages  of  4  and  16  years  whose  destina- 
tion falls  within  the  jurisdiction  of  these  school  authorities.  Besides 
the  name  of  the  child,  facts  are  furnished  to  facilitate  identification. 

In  this  way  the  machinery  will  be  set  in  motion  to  enable  local 
school  authorities  to  learn  almost  immediately  of  the  arrival  of  alien 
children  within  their  midst  and  thus  make  it  possible  to  bring  these 
children  into  school  before  they  are  spirited  away  into  unlawful 
employment.  Once  the  law  lays  its  hands  upon  such  children,  the 
chances  are  good  that  they  can  be  kept  long  enough  to  acquire  at 
least  a  working  knowledge  of  English  and  some  appreciation  of  civic 
life.  Delay  of  even  a  few  months,  however,  may  immensely  decrease 
the  chances  of  Americanizing  these  children.  Everything  now 
depends  upon  the  local  school  authorities.  Vigilance  on  their  part 
is  bound  to  result  in  incalculable  good,  while  indifference  dooms  the 
effort  to  failure. 

In  normal  times,  about  160,000  children  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
16  enter  the  United  States  annually,  80  per  cent  coming  from  the 
non-English-speaking  countries  of  southern  and  eastern  Europe, 
particularly  from  southern  Italy,  from  Poland,  Hungary,  Russia, 
and  other  adjoining  States.  Unless  these  children  come  early  into 
contact  with  American  ideals  through  the  school  system,  they 
are  likely  to  prove  unfit  for  American  citizenship. 

For  those  who  fall  within  the  second  category,  from  the  close  of 
the  compulsory  school-attendance  period  to  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  school-age  period,  very  little  legislation  is  applicable.  Massa- 
chusetts forms  a  conspicuous  exception  to  the  general  rule,  since 
for  nearly  30  years  there  has  been  a  law  upon  her  statute  books 
requiring  illiterate  minors  over  14  years  of  age  to  attend  some  school 
if  they  have  lived  for  a  year  in  a  city  or  town  which  maintains  an 
evening  school,  although  not  until  1898  was  instruction  in  the  English 
language  added  to  the  list  of  subjects  which  must  be  offered  in  these 
schools.  Beginning  with  1906,  the  standard  of  literacy  was  fixed 
by  legislation,  a  graduated  scale  being  established,  so  that  in  1908 
and  thereafter  literacy  was  interpreted  to  mean  such  ability  to  read 
and  write  as  is  required  for  admission  to  the  fourth  grade.  Five 
years  later  this  was  increased  to  the  completion  of  the  fourth  grade. 

Labor  legislation  of  1909  made  this  law  more  drastic  by  prohibiting 
the  employment  of  any  minor  coming  within  the  purview  of  tliis 
education  law,  unless  he  were  attending  a  public  evening  school. 
Furthermore,  in  accordance  with  State  law,  any  town  may  maintain, 
and  every  city  or  town  in  which  labor  certificates  are  granted  to  20 
or  more  persons  within  a  year  to  whom  this  illiteracy  law  applies, 


14  PUBLIC   FACILITIES   FOR  EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN". 

shall  maintain  an  evening  school  during  the  following  year.  In  effect, 
then,  this  legislation  reaches  every  illiterate  minor  as  denned  above 
between  16  and  21  years  of  age,  employed  or  unemployed,  married  or 
single,  living  in  a  community  where  evening  schools  are  maintained. 
No  other  State  has  done  so  much  to  eliminate  illiteracy.  At  best, 
however,  many  are  bound  to  escape,  for  according  to  the  most  trust- 
worthy statistics  available  on  March  1,  1916,  for  the  year  1914-15, 
there  were  23  communities  in  the  State  each  having  over  5,000  in- 
habitants and  over  1,000  foreign-born  whites  where  no  evening 
schools  were  found,  in  one  of  which,  according  to  the  census  returns 
for  1910,  the  foreign-born  whites  comprised  47  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation. More  striking  still  is  the  fact  that  3  of  the  23  communities 
had  over  10,000  inhabitants. 

Connecticut  likewise  has  a  mandatory  provision  in  its  education 
law  for  the  establishment  of  evening  schools,  every  town  having  a 
population  of  10,000  or  more  being  required  to  establish  and  main- 
tain such  schools  for  the  instruction  of  persons  over  14  years  old. 
Furthermore,  in  towns  where  evening  schools  are  found,  illiterates 
between  14  and  16  years  may  not  be  in  employment  save  on  condi- 
tion that  they  have  been  in  regular  attendance  at  evening  school 
during  the  preceding  month. 

New  York,  in  its  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class,  may  require  all 
persons  between  14  and  16  years  of  age  who  have  work  certificates 
and  who  have  not  completed  the  elementary  school  course  to  attend 
part-time,  or  continuation,  or  evening  schools,  but  the  imposition  of 
this  requirement  is  optional  with  the  community. 

Permissive  provisions  for  the  establishment  of  evening  schools  are 
furthermore  found  in  the  education  laws  of  several  States;  to  wit, 
California,  Georgia,  Kansas,  Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Vermont,  and  Wisconsin.  Nearly  all  the  so-called 
immigration  States  are  thus  covered,  Illinois,  the  most  significant 
exception,  reaching  illiterates  between  14  and  16  years  of  age  through 
the  medium  of  labor  legislation.  In  that  State  attendance  at  night 
school  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  passing  the  literacy  test. 

Permissive  legislation,  however,  seldom  accomplishes  its  purpose, 
and  there  is  little  reason  to  believe  that  these  States  in  this  regard 
form  any  exception  to  the  general  rule.  The  following  figures  for 
the  principal  immigration  States  (i.  e.,  all  those  having  over  500,000 
foreign-born  whites)  will  support  this  assertion : 


LEGAL   ASPECTS. 


15 


Number  of  evening  schools  in  the  principal  immigration  States  (i.  e.,  States  vit.h  over 

500,000  foreign-born  whites) . 


Number  of 
foreign- 
born 
whites. 

Number  of  urban  cen- 
ters •— 

Number  of 

States. 

With  over 
2,500  in- 
habitants. 

With  over 
1,000  for- 
eign-born 
whites. 

evening 
schools  in 
1914-15.2 

2,729,272 

1,430,719 

1,202,500 

1,1151,050 

658,  188 

597,  245 

595. 524 

543,010 

517,250 

512,509 

148 

263 

144 

152 

88 

139 

77 

48 

70 

73 

71 
127 
32 
117 
61 
40 
43 
32 
30 
38 

41 

42 

19 

65 

30 

Ohio          

20 

19 

8 

9 

19 

Total 

1,202 

591 

272 

1  United  States  census,  1910. 

2  Figures  up  to  Mar.  8,  1916,  from  data  on  file  at  the  Bureau  of  Education,  Division  of  Immigrant 
Education. 

While  the  figure  1,000  foreign-born  whites  gives  a  more  or  less 
arbitrary  dividing  line,  it  appeared  advisable  to  establish  some 
definite  basis  for  differentiation,  and  this  seemed  a  convenient 
division  point.  One  should  not  conclude  that  every  community 
above  this  limit  has  an  acute  alien  problem,  and  that  in  no  case  below 
this  figure  is  there  crying  need  for  educational  facilities  to  care  for 
the  foreign  born.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  foreign  born 
does  not  give  an  accurate  measure  of  the  need.  Maynard,  Mass., 
with  3,002  foreign-born  whites  out  of  a  total  population  of  6,390  and 
no  evening  school,  has  a  distinctly  more  serious  problem  to  face  than 
Savannah,  Ga.,  with  3,382  foreign-born  whites  out  of  65,064,  likewise 
without  an  evening  school,  or  Evansville,  Ind.,  with  4,462  foreign- 
born  whites  out  of  69,647  and  no  evening  classes  for  foreigners.  In 
the  majority  of  instances,  however,  it  is  fair  to  say  that  1,000  foreign- 
born  whites  in  any  community  deserve  some  evening  school  facilities, 
especially  since  more  than  one  in  five  of  these  on  the  average  will  be 
unable  to  speak  English,  according  to  the  figures  for  the  country  as  a 
whole  at  the  time  of  the  1910  census. 

According  to  the  foregoing  table,  about  half  the  cities  (following 
the  census  nomenclature  that  every  community  of  2,500  and  over 
is  classed  as  urban)  covered  by  these  figures  have  as  many  as  1,000 
foreign-born  whites,  and  less  than  half  of  these  cities  provide  evening- 
school  facilities.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  permissive  legisla- 
tion for  the  establishment  of  evening  schools  offers  slight  guarantee 
that  the  schools  will  actually  be  provided. 

One  may  safely  conclude  that  the  age  group  10  to  14  years  of  the 
foreign-born  white  population  unable  to  speak  English,  representing 


16  PUBLIC   FACILITIES   FOE   EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN. 

56,405  for  the  whole  country,  will  be  adequately  taken  care  of  by  the 
school  machinery  already  in  existence.  This  conclusion  is  still  fur- 
ther strengthened  by  the  fact  that  86.1  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign- 
born  white  population  within  that  age  group  (10  to  14)  are  in  school. 
As  age  increases,  the  foreign-born  white  child  is  less  and  less  likely 
to  be  found  in  school.  Linguistic  difficulties  make  it  improbablo  that 
he  will  be  found  in  any  of  the  regular  schools,  and  the  table  on  page 
36  shows  that  special  opportunities,  as  measured  by  the  prevalence 
of  evening  schools  in  the  10  States  under  consideration,  are  totally 
inadequate.  In  fact  less  than  half  the  communities  in  the  immigra- 
tion States  provide  evening-school  facilities  for  the  alien. 

For  those  of  21  years  of  age  and  over  unable  to  speak  English, 
the  problem  is  acute  and  distressing.  With  2,565,612  foreign- 
born  white  persons  who  fall  within  this  age  group  in  the  country  in 
1910  suffering  from  this  disability,  and  only  35,614  foreign-born 
white  adults  in  school,  or  1.3  per  cent,  it  is  evident  that  practically 
no  aliens  are  making  any  systematic  effort  to  acquire  the  English 
language.  Since  it  is  not  certain  that  all  these  35,000  are  drawn  from 
the  non-English-speaking  group,  the  real  facts  are  probably  even 
worse  than  the  figures  would  seem  to  indicate. 

Undoubtedly  present  facilities  are  already  available  for  increasing 
by  manyfold  this  insignificant  number  enrolled  in  school.  The 
successful  campaigns  undertaken  in  cities  like  Detroit  and  Syracuse 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  National  Americanization  Committee 
and  with  the  valued  support  of  the  chambers  of  commerce  justify 
this  assertion.  Unsatisfactory  attendance  upon  evening  classes  is 
partly  due  to  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  foreign-born  population  as 
to  the  facilities  for  education  that  may  be  had  for  the  asking.  This 
can,  of  course,  be  remedied  by  awakening  public  sentiment  to  the 
necessity  of  bringing  these  opportunities  to  the  attention  of  the 
foreigner  through  Americanization  meetings,  citizenship  addresses, 
publicity  campaigns  in  the  various  foreign  languages,  and  the  like, 
but  even  when  all  those  means  have  been  exhausted,  there  is  still 
much  to  be  done. 

In  many  instances  education  laws  themselves  need  to  be  changed, 
and  in  some  cases  even  the  State  constitution.  California  is  the  only 
State  in  the  Union  which  mentions  evening  schools  by  name  in  its 
constitution:1  "The  public-school  system  shall  include  day  and 
evening  elementary  schools  and  such  day  and  evening  secondary 
schools     *     *     *." 

Missouri  does  this  in  effect  when  it  grants  to  the  general  assembly 
the  right  to   "establish  and  maintain  free  public  schools  for  the 

1  The  following  material  relating  to  constitutional  and  legislative  provisions  for  evening  schools  is  based 
largely  upon  Hood,  W.  R.,  "Digest  of  State  Laws  Relating  to  Public  Education,"  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  No.  47, 1915. 


LEGAL    ASPECTS.  17 

gratuitous  instruction  of  all  persons  in  this-  State  between  5  and  6 
years  of  age  and  over  20  years  of  age." 

In  some  States  constitutional  provisions  militate  seriously  against 
the  establishment  of  free  evening  schools  for  adults,  unless  the 
community  is  prepared  to  support  them  entirely  from  its  own 
resources.  This  barrier  operates  indirectly  in  those  States  which 
provide  for  free  schools  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  all  residents 
between  certain  ages,  as  in  Colorado.  It  becomes  effective  in  others 
by  implication,  as  in  South  Dakota,  where  the  school  fund  is  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age.  In  still 
other  States,  the  same  result  is  reached  more  directly  and  positively, 
as  in  the  case  of  Iowa,  where  the  school  fund  is  distributed  on  the 
basis  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years.  The  following 
20  States  have  such  limitations:  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Colo- 
rado, Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  Mississippi, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota, 
Oklahoma,  Oregon,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Wyoming. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  constitutions  embodying  these 
provisions : 

Alabama. — Art.  XIV,  sec.  25G:  The  legislature  shall  establish,  organize,  and  main- 
tain a  liberal  system  of  public  schools  throughout  the  State  for  the  benefit  of  the 
children  thereof  between  the  ages  of  7  and  21  years.  The  public-school  fund  shall 
be  apportioned  to  the  several  counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  school  children 
of  school  age  therein    *    *    *. 

Arizona. — Art.  XI,  sec.  6:  The  legislature  shall  provide  for  a  system  of  common 
schools  by  which  a  free  school  shall  be  established  and  maintained  in  every  school 
district  for  at  least  six  months  in  each  year,  which  school  shall  be  open  to  all  pupils 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years. 

Sec.  8.  The  income  derived  from  the  investment  of  the  permanent  State  school  fund 
and  from  the  rental  derived  from  school  lands,  with  such  other  funds  as  may  be  pro- 
vided by  law,  shall  be  apportioned  annually  to  the  various  counties  of  the  State  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  pupils  of  school  age  residing  therein. 

Arkansas. — Art.  XIV.  sec.  1:  The  State  shall  ever  maintain  a  general,  suitable,  and 
efficient  system  of  free  schools  whereby  all  persons  in  the  State  between  the  ages  of 
6  and  21  years  may  receive  gratuitous  instruction. 

Colorado. — Art.  IX,  sec.  2:  The  general  assembly  shall,  as  soon  as  practicable,  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  thorough  and  uniform  system  of  free 
public  schools  throughout  the  State  wherein  all  residents  of  the  State  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  21  years  may  be  educated  gratuitously. 

Iowa. — Art.  IX,  Part  II,  sec.  7:  The  money  subject  to  the  support  and  maintenance 
of  common  schools  shall  be  distributed  to  the  districts  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  youths  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years,  in  such  manner  as  may  be  provided  by 
the  general  assembly. 

Kansas. — Art.  VI,  sec.  4:  The  income  of  the  State  school  funds  shall  be  disbursed 
annually,  by  order  of  the  State  superintendent,  *  *  *  in  equitable  proportion 
to  the  number  of  children  and  youth  resident  therein  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21 
years. 

46803°— 16 — -3 


18  PUBLIC    FACILITIES    FOR   EDUCATING    THE    ALIEN". 

Kentucky. — Sec.  186:  Each  county  in  the  Commonwealth  shall  be  entitled  to  its 
proportion  of  the  school  fund  on  its  census  of  pupil  children  for  each  school  year. 

Louisiana. — Art.  248:  There  shall  be  free  public  schools  for  the  white  and  colored 
races,  separately,  established  by  the  general  assembly,  throughout  the  State,  for  the 
education  of  all  the  children  of  the  State  between  the  ages  of  6  and  18  years.  *  *  * 
All  funds  raised  by  the  State  for  the  support  of  public  schools,  except  the  poll  tax, 
shall  be  distributed  to  each  parish  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  therein 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  18  years. 

Minnesota. — Art.  VIII,  sec.  2:  And  the  income  arising  from  the  lease  or  sale  of  said 
school  land  shall  be  distributed  to  the  different  townships  throughout  the  State,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  scholars  in  each  township,  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21 
years.1 

Mississippi. — Art.  VIII,  sec.  206:  The  common  school  fund  shall  be  distributed 
among  the  several  counties  and  separate  school  districts  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
educable  children  in  each. 

Montana. — Art.  XI,  sec.  5:  The  interest  on  all  invested  school  funds  of  the  State, 
*  *  *  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  several  school  districts  of  the  State  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  children  and  youths  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years,  residing 
therein  respectively. 

Nebraska. — Art.  VIII,  sec.  6:  The  legislature  shall  provide  for  the  free  instruction  in 
the  common  schools  of  this  State  of  all  persons  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years. 

New  Mexico. — Art.  XII,  sec.  1:  A  uniform  system  of  free  public  schools  sufficient 
for  the  education  of,  and  open  to,  all  the  children  of  school  age  in  the  State  shall  be 
established  and  maintained. 

North  Carolina. — Art.  IX,  sec.  2:  The  general  assembly  *  *  *  shall  provide 
by  taxation  and  otherwise  for  a  general  and  uniform  system  of  public  schools,  wherein 
tuition  shall  be  free  of  charge  to  all  the  children  of  the  State  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21 
years. 

North  Dakota. — Art.  IX,  sec.  154:  The  interest  and  income  of  this  fund  *  *  * 
shall  be  faithfully  used  and  applied  each  year  for  the  benefit  of  the  common  schools  of 
the-State,  and  shall  be  for  this  purpose  apportioned  among  and  between  all  the  several 
common-school  corporations  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  in 
each  of  school  age,  as  may  be  fixed  by  law. 

Oklahoma. — Art.  XIII,  sec.  1:  The  legislature  shall  establish  and  maintain  a  system 
of  free  public  schools  wherein  all  the  children  of  the  State  may  be  educated. 

Oregon. — Art.  VIII,  sec.  4:  Provision  shall  be  made  by  law  for  the  distribution  of 
the  ill  come  of  the  common-school  fund  among  the  several  counties  of  the  State  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children  resident  therein  between  the  ages  of  4  and  20  years. 

South  Carolina. — Art.  XI,  sec.  5:  The  general  assembly  shall  provide  for  a  liberal 
system  of  free  public  schools  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years. 

South  Dakota. — Art.  VIII,  sec.  3:  The  interest  and  income  of  this  fund  *  *  * 
shall  be  for  this  purpose  apportioned  among  and  between  all  the  several  public-school 
corporations  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  in  each  of  school  age, 
as  may  be  fixed  by  law. 

Wyoming. — Art.  VII,  sec.  8 :  Provision  shall  be  made  by  general  law  for  the  equitable 
distribution  of  such  income  among  the  several  counties  according  to  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age  in  each. 

Sec.  9.  The  legislature  shall  make  such  further  provision,  by  taxation  or  otherwise, 
as  with  the  income  arising  from  the  general  school  fund  will  create  and  maintain  a 
thorough  and  efficient  system  of  public  schools,  adequate  to  the  proper  instruction  of 
all  the  youth  of  the  State,  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years,  free  of  charge. 

1  But,  see  legislative  enactment  infra,  p.  19. 


LEGAL    ASPECTS.  19 

State  school  laws  supplement  and  apply  the  constitutional  pro- 
visions. These  are  summed  up  for  the  10  principal  immigration 
States  in  the  following  digest: 

California. — Cities  are  generally  administered  under  separate  charter  wherein  are 
defined  the  powers  and  duties  of  school  boards.  In  cities  of  the  fifth  class,  school 
boards  are  granted  general  authority  to  establish  evening  schools. 

Illinois. — Night  schools  are  recognized  in  the  child-labor  law.  Attendance  at  such 
schools  is  recognized  as  satisfying  the  provision  of  the  law  prohibiting  the  employment 
of  any  child  between  14  and  16  who  can  not  read  and  write. 

Massachusetts. — Any  town  may  and  every  city  or  town  in  which  there  are  issued 
during  the  year  of  September  1  to  August  31  certificates  authorizing  employment  of 
20  or  more  persons  who  do  not  possess  the  educational  qualifications  enumerated  in 
the  compulsory  attendance  law  of  the  State  shall  maintain  during  the  following 
school  year  an  evening  school  for  instruction  of  persons  over  14  years  old  in  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  the  English  language  and  grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  industrial 
drawing  (both  free-hand  and  mechanical),  the  history  of  the  United  States,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  and  good  behavior;  such  other  subjects  may  be  taught  as  may  be  de- 
termined by  the  school  committee. 

Michigan. — No  statement,  direct  or  otherwise. 

Minnesota. — School  board  of  independent  district  may  also  provide  for  admission 
of  nonresident  pupils  and  those  above  school  age  and  fix  tuition  of  such  pupils. 

*  *  *  Such  boards  may  also  establish  and  maintain  evening  schools  for  persons 
over  10  years  old  unable  to  attend  day  school  and  receive  State  aid  for  same. 

New  Jersey. — Board  of  education  of  any  district  may  maintain  evening  schools  for 
education  of  residents  over  12  years  old;  *  *  *  Said  board  may  establish  and 
maintain  a  public  evening  school  for  instruction  of  foreign-born  residents  over  14 
years  old  in  the  English  language  and  in  government  and  laws  of  New  Jersey  and  of 
the  United  States;  teachers  in  such  schools  must  hold  special  teachers'  certificates; 

*  *  *  course  of  study  in  such  school  must  be  approved  by  State  board.  Each  dis- 
trict maintaining  evening  school  or  schools  shall  receive  from  the  State  for  such  school 
or  schools  an  amount  equal  to  that  raised  by  the  district,  such  aid  not  to  exceed 
§5,000  per  year  for  any  district. 

New  York. — Board  of  education  of  each  school  district  and  of  each  city  may  main- 
tain free  night  schools. 

Ohio. — Upon  petition  of  parents  or  guardians  of  not  less  than  25  school  children  who 
are  prevented  from  attending  day  school,  the  school  board  in  any  district  shall  organ- 
ize an  evening  school;  teachers  for  such  schools  must  hold  regularly  issued  teachers' 
certificates;  board  may  discontinue  such  school  when  average  attendance  falls  below 
12;  any  person  over  21  years  old  may  be  permitted  to  attend  the  evening  school  upon 
payment  of  tuition.  The  schools  of  each  district  shall  be  free  to  all  youths  between 
6  and  21  years  of  age  resident  therein. 

Pennsylvania. — The  board  of  school  directors  of  any  district  of  second,  third,  or 
fourth  class,  upon  application  of  parents  of  25  or  more  pupils  above  14  years,  shall 
open  a  free  evening  school  for  instruction  in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
and  such  other  subjects  as  board  may  determine;  evening  schools  shall  be  kept  open 
for  at  least  4  months  per  year,  20  days  a  month,  and  2  hours  each  evening;  no  student 
shall  be  admitted  unless  employed  during  the  day;  evening  schools  may  be  closed 
when  the  average  attendance  falls  below  15.  Boards  may  admit  persons  under  6 
and  over  21  to  suitable  special  or  vocational  schools. 

Wisconsin. — Every  community  of  over  5,000  inhabitants  must  and  every  one  of  less 
than  5,000  may  have  an  industrial  education  board,  a  part  of  whose  duties  shall  be 
the  fostering,  establishing,  and  maintaining  of  evening  schools.  Such  school  must 
be  established  on  petition  of  25  persons  qualified  to  attend  such  school. 


Chapter  III. 
PRESENT  CONDITIONS. 


Some  indication  has  already  been  given  of  the  prevalence  of 
evening  schools  in  the  chief  immigration  States,  in  consequence 
of  the  permissive  legislation  existing  on  their  statute  books.  It  is 
pertinent  to  discuss  in  some  detail  the  specific  conditions  under 
which  these  schools  are  actually  administered. 

The  following  information  is  based  upon  questionnaire  returns 
sent  in  by  school  administrative  officers  for  the  year  1914-15.  Inquiry 
from  the  Bureau  of  Education  brought  in  a  wealth  of  valuable 
information  from  almost  all  the  more  important  cities  and  towns 
in  the  country  where  evening  schools  for  foreigners  were  successfully 
maintained.  While  certain  details  have  necessarily  been  omitted, 
the  returns  were  unusually  complete,  and  it  is  safe  to  conclude 
that  the  most  significant  characteristics  of  evening-school  manage- 
ment are  embodied  herein. 

SUPPORT. 

Eleven  of  the  States  make  grants  for  evening-school  support, 
to  wit:  California,  Connecticut,  Indiana  (vocational),  Maine,  Min- 
nesota, New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  (industrial),  Rhode 
Island,  Washington,  Wisconsin. 

California. — Evening  schools  are  part  of  the  general  school  system.  State  aid  is 
based  upon  average  daily  attendance  in  day  and  evening  schools.  A  day's  attendance, 
two  hours,  in  an  evening  school  is  equivalent  to  a  half-day's  attendance  in  a  day  school. 
Inasmuch  as  the  attendance  unit  in  1914-15  was  worth  $15  per  year  per  pupil,  this 
amounted  to  one-half  of  $15  for  evening-school  attendance. 

Connecticut. — To  each  town  supporting  an  evening  school  the  State  grants  $2.25 
per  pupil  in  average  attendance,  provided  the  school  has  been  maintained  for  75 
nights  and  a  report  upon  such  school  has  been  rendered  to  the  board. 

Maine. — The  State  reimburses  the  city  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  of  the  amount 
expended  for  salaries  of  teachers,  provided  certain  vocational  subjects  are  also  offered 
in  the  school.  General  evening-school  instruction  is  thus  supported  through  a  rider 
on  the  industrial  education  act. 

Minnesota. — State  grant  is  available  for  evening-school  pupils  between  5  and  21 
years,  provided  they  have  attended  40  nights  or  more.  Only  2  out  of  10  cities  report- 
ing note  any  State  aid,  and  the  amounts  received  in  1914-15  were  $200  and  $2,154, 
respectively.  Schools  are  opened,  however,  to  all  persons  over  10  years  of  age  who 
for  any  cause  are  unable  to  attend  the  public  day  schools. 

New  Jersey. — State  grants  $80  per  teacher  for  each  one  who  holds  a  regular  teacher's 
certificate  and  who  teaches  at  least  64  evenings  of  two  hours  each.     There  is  also  a 

20 


PRESENT    CONDITIONS.  21 

per  capita  allowance  based  upon  attendance.  An  evening  attendance  is  reckoned 
as  a  half-day's  attendance.  Inasmuch  as  this  is  apportioned  from  a  lump  appropria- 
tion, the  per  capita  amount  varies  from  year  to  year.  In  case  the  local  board  so  elects, 
the  State  will  duplicate  the  local  appropriation  for  evening  classes  for  foreign-born 
residents  in  lieu  of  the  grant  above  noted,  not,  however,  to  exceed  $5,000  annually. 
Complaint  is  made  that  this  law  really  provides  aid  for  only  small  communities.  In 
large  systems  it  is  claimed  that  the  city  actually  loses  money  by  taking  advantage  of 
the  law. 

New  York. — There  is  no  specific  appropriation  for  ordinary  night  schools,  although 
aid  is  apportioned  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  teachers  and  the  number  of  days 
they  teach  under  the  regular  State  grant  system.  For  each  180  days  or  more  taught 
during  the  year  $100  is  allowed,  and  a  night  is  regarded  as  half  a  day.  Purely  voca- 
tional schools  are  aided  on  a  separate  basis. 

Rhode  Island. — State  aid  is  granted  on  the  basis  of  half  the  amount  expended  up  to 
$1,000;  then  $100  for  each  additional  $500  expended  up  to  $3,500.  The  maximum 
amount  in  any  one  case  is  therefore  $1,000.  In  1915  the  State  had  only  $7,000  to  dis- 
tribute, however,  so  that  even  this  schedule  can  not  always  be  paid  in  full. 

Washington. — Current  school  funds  of  State  and  county  are  apportioned  among 
the  several  districts  of  the  State  according  to  the  actual  number  of  days'  attendance 
of  all  pupils.  For  the  purpose  of  this  distribution  an  evening's  attendance  in  the 
evening  school  is  counted  as  a  half  day.  Sessions  must  be  two  hours  in  length  and 
there  must  be  no  maximum  age  limit. 

Wisconsin. — State  reimburses  city  for  one-half  actual  expenditures  for  evening 
schools  up  to  a  maximum  allotment  of  $3,000,  provided  the  schools  are  maintained 
for  at  least  eight  months  and  that  the  work  is  satisfactory  to  the  State  superintendent 
and  the  State  board  of  industrial  education.  No  tuition  may  be  charged  to  residents, 
and  schools  are  open  to  all  over  14  years  of  age. 

FEES. 

These  schedules  and  most  of  the  following  material  relate  exclu- 
sively to  conditions  in  the  so-called  evening  elementary  schools,  the 
only  classes  where  the  alien  is  likely  to  be  found.  Some  communities 
support  evening  commercial,  high,  industrial,  or  vocational  schools, 
but  these  are  outside  the  limits  of  the  present  inquiry. 

Fees  in  evening  schools  do  not  amount  to  any  significant  figure, 
although  a  few  less  important  places  report  that  their  school  is 
entirely  dependent  upon  this  source  of  income.  Several  of  the 
States  have  specific  regulations  against  charging  fees  in  the  schools 
as  a  condition  of  receiving  State  grant.  With  relatively  few  excep- 
tions, fees  where  collected  do  not  apply  to  foreigners  learning  English, 
and  in  these  exceptions  the  amounts  are  seldom  burdensome.  Only 
77  schools  out  of  429  report  fees  charged,  and  54  of  these  are  found 
in  the  States  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  New  York, 
Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania. 

In  Illinois  these  fees  range  from  50  cents  per  month  to  $2  per 
month  for  a  six  months'  term.  It  is  significant  to  note  that  in  the 
city  charging  this  higher  figure  no  school  was  opened  in  1915-16 
because  there  was  not  sufficient  enrollment  of  those  willing  to  pay 
this  fee.     Iowa  reports  fees  ranging  from  SI  per  season  to  $5  per 


22  PUBLIC    FACILITIES    FOR   EDUCATING    THE   ALIEN. 

season  for  those  over  21  years  of  age.  Massachusetts  cities  charge 
$1  to  $2  per  season,  hut  only  for  those  not  subject  to  the  compulsory 
attendance  law.  Michigan  school  fees  range  from  $1  per  season  to 
50  cents  per  week  for  a  five  months'  term.  New  York  charges  in  six 
schools  from  SI  to  $2.  Ohio  reports  from  $1  per  season  to  10  cents 
per  lesson  for  those  over  21  years  of  age,  for  an  87-lesson  term.  In 
Pennsylvania  the  fees  range  from  25  cents  per  season  to  $1  per  month 
for  a  five  months'  term. 

DEPOSITS. 

In  150  communities  deposits  are  required  of  evening-school  pupils, 
usually  as  an  earnest  of  good  faith,  but  sometimes  in  order  to  guaran- 
tee satisfactory  deportment,  return  of  books  loaned,  or  regularity  of 
attendance.  The  fact  that  in  nearly  every  case  reasonable  care  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils  will  secure  the  return  of  this  fee  is  sufficient 
warrant  for  these  assertions.  The  most  frequent  attendance  re- 
quirement ranges  from  two-thirds  to  four-fifths  of  the  possible  at- 
tendances, although  in  some  cases  it  is  left  under  the  general  state- 
ment of  "satisfactory  attendance  and  deportment,"  and  one  town 
goes  so  far  as  to  demand  perfect  attendance  on  condition  of  returning 
50  per  cent  of  the  deposit. 

SUPERVISION. 

Evening-school  supervision  is  far  from  being  upon  a  satisfactory 
basis.  It  should  be  as  much  a  specialty  as  the  many  other  phases  of 
school  work  that  are  recognized  as  demanding  expert  supervision. 
Most  of  the  work,  however,  is  still  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
superintendent's  office.  About  one-third  (150)  of  all  the  cities  and 
towns  whose  returns  are  available  report  a  director  for  evening-school 
work,  although  in  certain  cities  this  direction  is  merely  an  added 
function  laid  upon  an  administrative  officer  already  seriously  over- 
burdened. 

Existence  or  nonexistence  of  the  director  of  evening  schools,  as 
found  in  the  returns,  is  not  always  a  dependable  criterion  of  the 
work  done,  for  many  small  communities  report  such  a  director  and 
many  important  places  report  none.  For  example,  a  city  of  over 
250,000  inhabitants,  well  known  for  the  efficiency  of  its  general 
supervision,  in  reporting  no  director  of  evening  schools,  adds  that 
such  schools  are  supervised  by  the  superintendent  and  his  assistant. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  little  borough  of  600  inhabitants*  in  the  same 
State,  for  which  a  record  happens  to  be  available,  reports  a  director 
of  evening  schools  whose  duties  include  teaching  "reading,  writing, 
and  English  work."  It  is  not  difficult  to  judge  between  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  actual  direction  of  evening  schools  in  these  two  com- 
munities. 


PRESENT    CONDITIONS.  23 

All  varieties  of  duties  are  specified  in  the  returns,  from  "  merely 
teaching,"  "merely  providing  classes  for  the  schools,"  "dividing  the 
classes  and  grading  them,"  to  "to  cooperate  with  the  government,  to 
advise  course  of  study,  and  to  study  the  classroom  instruction." 
One  of  the  most  suggestive  lists  of  specific  duties  is  thus  enumerated 
by  the  director  of  evening  schools  in  Gardner,  Mass.: 

The  principal  acts  as  director.  He  speaks  before  the  different  clubs  and  societies. 
He  visits  the  pastors  of  the  foreign  churches.  He  interviews  the  overseers  at  the  fac- 
tories. He  acts  in  an  advisory  capacity  at  the  foreign  clubs,  aiding  in  the  purchase 
of  books,  etc. 

A  most  comprehensive  statement  comes  from  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  a 
city  which  has  made  great  strides  in  its  Americanization  movement: 

This  part  of  our  work  is  in  charge  of  our  Director  of  Immigrant  Education,  who 
prepares  the  outlines,  supervises  the  teaching,  and  conducts  normal  classes  for  the 
training  of  teachers. 

From  the  information  at  hand,  it  is  evident  that  effective  super- 
vision, even  as  the  term  is  used  in  connection  with  day-school  work, 
is  practically  negligible  in  evening  schools,  if  the  country  as  a  whole 
be  considered.  Relatively  few  cities  are  attempting  it  at  all,  and 
the  number  attacking  the  problem  effectively  is  insignificant.  Yet 
new  problems  of  organization  and  method  are  presenting  themselves, 
and  these  can  not  be  solved  as  are  those  of  the  day  school,  largely 
because  the  age  limits  of  evening-school  pupils  cover  a  wider  range 
than  those  of  the  ordinary  school.  Special  training  or  peculiar  skill 
of  adaptation  is  essential  in  order  to  cope  with  the  unusual  situations 


in  evening-school  work. 


TEACHERS. 


Teachers  in  evening-school  classes  are  recruited  very  largely 
from  among  the  day-school  staff.  Many  superintendents  follow 
this  method  from  choice,  and  many  others  from  necessity.  The 
former  assert  that  day-school  teachers  have  already  proved  their 
efficiency,  while  the  latter  accept  such  teachers  reluctantly  and  only 
as  a  last  resort,  at  the  same  time  maintaining  that  evening-school 
work  interferes  with  the  efficiency  of  both  day  and  evening  schools. 
It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  nine-tenths  of  the  day  teachers 
are  able  either  physically  or  professionally  to  carry  this  double 
burden,  under  the  prevailing  conditions.  The  conscientious  teacher 
already  spends  too  many  evenings  in  school  work,  for  they  provide 
the  only  available  time  for  the  outside  preparation  which  no  good 
teacher  can  get  along  without. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  advisability  of  having  the  teachers  use 
the  language  of  the  pupils,  although  from  the  character  of  the  replies 
received  it  is  evident  that  most  of  the  judgments  are  purely  ex 
cathedra,  and  are  not  based  upon  actual  experience.     Some  super- 


24  PUBLIC    FACILITIES   FOR   EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN. 

intendents  require  this  language  acquaintance;  some  refuse  to 
recognize  it  as  a  qualification  for  appointment;  and  some  are  indiffer- 
ent. Ability  to  speak  the  language  of  the  alien  pupil  is  of  un- 
questioned value  in  organizing  the  classes,  and  it  undoubtedly  tends  » 
to  establish  a  comfortable  personal  relationship  between  teacher 
and  pupils  if  the  pupils  feel  that  they  can  find  a  sympathetic  listener 
and  helper  in  the  person  of  the  teacher.  As  far  as  subsequent 
classroom  use  is  concerned,  however,  its  advantage  is  not  so  obvious, 
for  the  prime  purpose  of  the  pupil  is  to  learn  English.  Besides,  in 
a  pofyglot  group  of  pupils,  such  language  knowledge  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  is  practically  impossible. 

The  essential  advantages  of  acquaintance  with  the  language  of  the 
pupils  in  organizing  the  classes  may  be  secured  through  interpreters, 
utilizing,  for  instance,  the  services  of  steamship  agents,  private  bank- 
ers, and  the  like,  who  will  be  found  in  almost  every  immigrant  com- 
munity.    This  interpreter  service  should  by  all  means  be  provided 

for  in  some  way. 

CERTIFICATES. 

So  far  as  may  be  judged  from  available  returns,  only  seven  cities 
have  an  effective  special  certificate  in  vogue  for  teachers  of  classes  of 
immigrants:  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  Rochester,  N.  Y.;  Hoboken 
and  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  Cincinnati  and  Middletown,  Ohio.  The  Roches- 
ter requirement  runs  thus : 

Must  be  graduates  of  the  normal  class  for  teachers  of  English  to  foreigners;  must  be 
high-school  graduates  at  least;  must  evince  an  aptitude  for  this  work;  must  be 
familiar  with  methods  and  textbooks. 

Buffalo,  Hoboken,  and  Trenton  require  knowledge  of  the  native 
language  of  the  pupils,  but  in  Buffalo,  at  least,  this  language  test 
seems  to  have  fallen  into  abeyance. 

QUALIFICATIONS. 

Most  cities  in  California,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York,  as  well  as  1 5 
cities  outside  these  States,  demand  the  possession  of  the  regular 
teachers'  certificates.  Five  of  these  cities  are  found  in  Massachu- 
setts, while  the  others  are  scattered  through  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
Maine,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Utah,  Virginia,  and 

Washington. 

APPOINTMENT. 

Teachers  are  appointed  in  various  ways,  almost  all  methods  being 
represented:  By  the  superintendent,  by  the  board  on  recommenda- 
tion of  the  superintendent  or  supervisor,  by  a  committee  of  the 
board,  by  the  principal,  by  the  director  of  evening  schools,  by  the 
supervisor  of  extension  work,  or  by  the  board  of  industrial  educa- 
tion (Wisconsin). 


PRESENT    CONDITIONS.  25 

TRAINING. 

Little  definite  training  for  teachers  of  foreigners  is  yet  under  way, 
yet  the  problems  encountered  in  this  type  of  work  are  certainly  as 
different  from  those  involved  in  ordinary  elementary  and  secondary 
teaching  as  are  those  between  kindergartening  and  ordinary  teach- 
ing. For  the  year  1915-16  a  few  cities  report  special  training  courses. 
Manifestly,  if  such  courses  are  not  available,  it  is  futile  to  attempt 
to  impose  such  training  requirements  as  a  qualification  for  appoint- 
ment. Albany,  Buffalo,  and  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  Harris  Teachers' 
College,  St.  Louis,  are  offering  specific  courses  of  training  in  this  field. 
Wilmerding,  Pa.,  offers  a  course  of  training  for  its  teachers  and  insists 
that  the  teachers  of  foreigners  follow  it.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  has  a 
printed  course  of  study  for  evening  schools,  and  endeavors  by  frequent 
conferences  to  make  sure  that  it  is  scrupulously  followed.  Other 
cities  note  special  meetings  or  conferences  with  evening-school 
teachers:  Rockford  and  East  Chicago,  111.,  Franklin,  Mass.,  Hibbing, 
Minn.,  Garwood,  N.  J.,  Hudson  Falls  and  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Milwaukee 
and  Superior,  Wis.  Thirty-five  cities  report  lectures  on  immigrant 
education  problems,  but  even  these  reach  only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  communities  that  are  conducting  evening  schools  for  foreigners. 

SALARIES. 

In  the  main,  salaries  of  both  teachers  and  principals  in  the  evening 
schools  are  paid  on  the  evening  basis,  although  some  teachers  are 
paid  by  the  hour,  some  by  the  week,  some  by  the  month,  and  some 
by  the  year.  The  distribution  of  the  various  bases  upon  which 
teachers'  salaries  are  paid  in  the  354  places  reporting  on  this  point 

is  as  follows: 

Basis  cf  payment  cf teachers'  salaries. 

Towns  and  cities  paying  by  the —  Number. 

Hour  (or  period) 41 

Evening 271 

Week '5 

Month 31 

Year 2  6 

Total 354 

Principals'  salaries  are  usually  paid  upon  the  same  basis  as  the 
teachers',  although  in  14  cases  the  basis  is  different,  seven  of  these 
representing  the  principal's  salary  upon  a  monthly  basis  instead  of 
the  hourly  or  daily  basis  of  the  teachers';  five  representing  a  cor- 
responding change  to  the  yearly  basis;  and  two  a  change  from  the 
hourly  basis  prevailing  for  the  teachers  to  the  evening  basis.     These 

i  Council  Grove,  Kans.;  Westfield,  Mass.;  Alpena,  Mich.;  Conneaut,  Ohio;  Burlington,  Vt. 
2  Berkeley  and  Oakland,  Cal.;  Bordentown,  Ridgewood,  and  Tenafly,  N.  J.;  Ogden,  Utah. 

46803°— 16 4 


26 


PUBLIC   FACILITIES   FOR  EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN, 


few  differences  would  make  the  distribution  basis  for  the  principals' 
salaries  slightly  different  from  that  of  the  teachers'  given  just  before. 

Yearly  salaries  for  teachers  range  from  $80  in  the  case  of  Borden- 
town  and  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  to  $500  and  $700  in  Oakland,  Cal.  As 
in  the  case  of  day-school  salaries,  California  heads  the  list,  although 
the  difference  is  not  quite  so  striking  as  these  figures  would  seem 
to  indicate  when  one  notes  that  the  evening-school  year  in  the  two 
New  Jersey  towns  is  only  64  nights  as  against  187  in  Oakland. 

The  33  monthly  salaries  range  from  the  Casino  Technical  Night 
School,  a  privately  controlled  school  in  East  Pittsburgh,  with  $15 
per  month  for  three  times  per  week  and  a  nine  months'  term,  and 
Roslyn,  Wash.,  with  three  times  per  week  and  a  four  months'  term, 
to  Tampa,  Fla.,  with  $80  per  month  for  three  times  per  week  and  a 
six  months'  term,  and  Spring  Valley,  111.,  with  $85  per  month  for 
six  times  per  week  and  a  ten  months'  term. 

Below  will  be  found  a  statement  in  tabular  form  of  the  salaries 
per  evening  of  teachers  and  principals  in  three  groups  of  cities,  ar- 
ranged according  to  population.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to 
apply  exact  statistical  treatment  to  these  data,  but  the  form  found 
herein  will  probably  be  more  useful  to  the  ordinary  reader.  The 
extremely  wide  variations  go  far  to  vitiate  the  value  of  the  averages, 
but  the  information  is  sufficiently  detailed  to  enable  the  school 
authorities  of  a  given  community  to  estimate  roughly  the  extent 
to  which  the  salaries  in  their  community  conform  to  the  practice  in 
other  cities  of  the  same  general  class. 

Salaries  of  teachers  and  principals  according  to  population  groups.1 


Population. 


Teachers'  salaries: 

Average 

Range 

Most  frequent  salary 

Principals'  salaries: 
Average 

Range 

Most  frequent  salary 


Group  I. 
Over  100,000. 


$2.20  (36  cities). 

SI  to  $3. 
$2.00(10  cities). 

$3.64  (30  cities). 
$1.50  to  $5.50. 
$4.00  (7  cities). 


Group  II. 
25,000  to  100,000. 


$1.93  (81  cities). 

$1  to  $3.50. 
$2.00  (25  cities). 

$3.17  (60  cities). 

$1.50  to  $6.00. 

$3.00  (17  cities). 


Group  III. 

10,000  to  25,000. 


$1.85  (S2  cities). 

$1  to  $3.50. 
$2.00  (26  Cities). 

$2.70  (51  cities). 

$1.50  to  $5.00. 

$2.00  (16  cities). 


From  the  foregoing  table  it  is  evident  that  on  the  whole  there  is 
a  direct  relation  between  the  size  of  the  community  and  the  salaries 
of  teachers  and  principals.  There  are,  however,  twice  as  many  cities 
in  Group  II  paying  $3  per  evening  or  more  as  there  are  in  Group  I. 
There  are  also  more  cities  in  Group  III  in  this  category  than  in 
Group  I.  In  some  respects  this  table  does  not  show  actual  maxi- 
mum amounts.  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  for  example,  a  city  of  the  second 
group,  pays  its  teachers  $3  or  $4  per  evening.  For  tabulating  pur- 
poses this  appears  as  $3.50.     Pittsburgh  and  St.  Louis  each  has  a 


1  Statistics  in  Table  6  represent  in  some  instances  later  information. 


PRESENT   CONDITIONS. 


27 


maximum  principal's  salary  of  $7  per  evening,  but  they  pay  $4  and 
$3.50,  respectively,  as  a  minimum.  In  most  of  the  cities  there  seems 
to  be  a  fair  relation  between  the  salaries  of  teachers  and  principals. 
Gardner,  Mass.,  presents  the  most  striking  salary  difference,  paying 
its  teachers  from  75  cents  to  $1.25  per  evening  (appearing  in  the 
table  as  $1),  but  its  principal  $5  per  evening. 

NUMBER  OF  SESSIONS. 

Evening-school  terms  vary  widely  from  Traverse  City,  Mich.,  with 
20  sessions,  1  per  week,  to  Los  Angeles  and  Oakland,  Cal.,  with  187 
sessions,  5  per  week.  With  such  a  wide  range  and  so  much  varia- 
tion, averages  mean  little.  Some  of  the  more  significant  facts  will  be 
apparent  from  the  subjoined  table: 


Number  of  sessions  in  evening-school  term,  1914-15 — Range  of  sessions. 

Population. 

Group  I. 
Over  100,000. 

Group  II. 
25,000  to  100,000. 

Group  III. 
10,000  to  25,000. 

Cities  reporting 

43 
83 

|         Over  90  sessions,   9 
70-90  sessions,  24 

[Less  than  70  sessions,  10 

102 

79 

Over  90  sessions,  22 

60-90  sessions,  59 

Less  than  60  sessions,  21 

113 

Average  number  of  sessions . 
Cities  reporting 

59 

Over  80  sessions,  13 

40-80  sessions,  78 

Less  than  40  sessions,  22 

As  might  be  expected,  the  larger  cities  as  a  rule  have  the  longer 
evening-school  sessions,  but  certain  similarities  are  apparent  in  the 
returns  for  particular  States,  largely  due  to  the  operation  of  State 
laws.  In  California,  for  example,  the  session  varies  in  the  main 
between  140  and  187  evenings,  for  in  that  State  the  evening-school 
term  is  practically  coextensive  with  that  in  the  day  schools.  In 
Connecticut  the  number  is  almost  uniformly  75  sessions  per  year,  for 
that  is  in  pursuance  of  the  State  law  bearing  upon  the  subject.  New 
Jersey,  on  the  other  hand,  insists  upon  a  64-session  year  as  one  of  the 
conditions  for  sharing  in  the  grant  for  evening  schools;  hence  a  cer- 
tain uniformity  in  that  State.  Massachusetts,  despite  its  advanced 
position  on  the  subject  of  compulsory  attendance  for  illiterates 
beyond  the  compulsory  school  age,  seems  to  have  done  nothing  to 
provide  for  a  minimum  number  of  sessions.  As  a  result,  with  few 
exceptions,  the  Massachusetts  cities  are  below  the  average  of  their 
population  class,  as  indicated  in  the  table  just  above,  for  the  num- 
ber of  sessions  of  their  evening  schools. 

EVENINGS  PER  WEEK. 

The  number  of  sessions  per  week  varies  from  one  to  six,  with  three 
as  the  most  frequent  number.  Following  will  be  found  the  number 
of  cities  reporting  on  this  point,  classified  according  to  the  number 
of  sessions  per  week. 


28  PUBLIC    FACILITIES    FOR   EDUCATING    THE    ALIEN. 

Classification  of  cities  according  to  number  of  evening-school  sessions  per  iveek. 

Cities  having  evening  school —  Cities. 

One  night  per  week 5 

Two  nights  per  week 54 

Three  nights  per  week 175 

Four  nights  per  week 102 

Five  nights  per  week 38 

Six  nights  per  week '  2 

Total 376 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  distribution  of  frequency  of  evening- 
school  sessions  per  week  approximates  the  curve  of  normal  distribu- 
tion. It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  size  of  city  has  relatively  little 
effect  on  this  feature. 

SESSION  NIGHTS. 

Monday  is  by  all  odds  the  most  popular  night  for  evening-school 
sessions.  Of  376  cities  reporting  on  this  point,  335  have  evening 
school  on  Monday.  Most  of  the  possible  evening  combinations  are 
found  in  the  returns.  The  most  frequent  combination  is  Monday, 
Wednesday,  Friday,  found  in  86  cities,  closely  followed  by  Monday, 
Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday,  which  occurs  in  80  cities.  Below 
will  be  found  all  the  combinations  chosen  by  18  or  more  cities,  with 
the  number  of  cities  choosing  each  combination: 

Evening  combinations,  ivith  number  of  cities  adopting  each. 

Cities. 

Monday,  Wednesday,  Friday 86 

Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday 80 

Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday 44 

Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday,  Friday 38 

Tuesday,  Thursday 23 

Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday,  Friday 20 

Monday,  Wednesday,  Thursday 18 

Scattering 67 

Total 376 

HOURS  OF  SESSIONS. 

Evening-school  sessions  are  held  at  various  times,  almost  any 
combination  of  hours  being  obtainable  from  6  o'clock  in  the  evening 
until  half  past  10.  One  community,  Ely,  Minn.,  which  runs  its 
evening  schools  in  shifts  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  mine 
workers,  has  one  group  from  4  to  6  in  the  afternoon  and  the  other 
from  7  to  9  in  the  evening.  From  7.30  to  9.30  is  the  commonest  hour, 
146  (out  of  428  communities  reporting  on  this  point)  having  evening- 

«  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  and  Spring  Valley,  111.  In  neither  case  does  any  individual  have  six  nights  of  work. 
In  Spring  Valley  it  is  either  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  or  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday.  In 
Chillicothe  each  pupil  has  from  one  to  three  nights  per  week  according  to  subjects  elected.  In  this  latter 
city  there  is  a  relatively  small  alien  population. 


PRESENT    CONDITIONS.  29 

school  sessions  at  that  period.  This  is  closely  followed  by  the  7  to  9 
period,  which  is  found  in  122  cities  and  towns,  and  the  7.30  to  9 
period,  in  58  communities. 

Whatever  the  time  of  meeting  may  be,  the  two-hour  session  is  very 
common,  323  out  of  428  reporting  it.  If  the  74  cities  having  a  session 
of  an  hour  and  a  hah  are  eliminated  from  the  others,  the  residue 
scattered  all  along  between  one  and  four  hours  is  practically  negligible. 
Three  communities  report  one-hour  sessions,  and  one,  Spring  Valley, 
111.,  reports  a  four-hour  session. 

SUMMER  SESSIONS. 

A  few  cities  report  summer  sessions  for  aliens:  Los  Angeles  and 
Oakland,  Cal;  Saginaw  (west  side),  Mich.;  Amsterdam,  N.  Y.; 
Akron,  Ohio  (Y.  M.  C.  A.);  Cokeburg,  Pa.  (Ellsworth  Collieries  Co.). 

In  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  this  was  a  day  session,  opening  in  July  and 
closing  in  August.  Oakland  ran  its  classes  in  the  evening  from  June 
6  to  July  28.  This  gives  Oakland  practically  52  weeks  of  evening 
school,  for  the  summer  session  bridged  the  gap  between  the  close  of 
the  regular  evening-school  session,  June  2,  and  the  opening  of  the 
new  school  year  on  July  29. 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  likewise  reports  a  day  session  for  aliens  begin- 
ning July  6  and  continuing  for  six  weeks.  Akron,  Ohio,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
with  its  summer  school  for  aliens,  also  rounds  out  a  52-week  year  for 
evening  work,  with  four  sessions  per  week.  In  Cokeburg,  Pa.,  the 
evening  classes  during  the  summer  were  classes  in  sewing  for  married 
foreign  women. 

Lack  of  funds  prevented  New  York  City  from  conducting  its  even- 
ing classes  in  English  for  foreigners  in  the  summer  of  1915.  These 
classes  had  been  very  successful  in  1913-14,  the  attendance  record 
in  that  year  having  been  83.6  per  cent,  as  opposed  to  71.7  per  cent 
for  the  regular  winter  session. 

Summer  sessions  for  foreigners  seem  especially  desirable,  for  the 
summer  months  are  the  period  of  greatest  immigration.  With  the 
short  CA^ening-school  term  (frequently  closing  in  March  or  even 
earlier),  the  first  weeks  of  the  foreigner's  sojourn  in  the  new  land 
pass  by,  and  a  certain  tactical  advantage  is  lost.  Before  fall,  the 
novelty  has  worn  off,  the  early  enthusiasm  has  been  spent,  language 
adjustments  have  been  made,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  bring  before 
the  foreigner  the  necessity  of  getting  into  touch  with  our  language 
and  our  institutions. 

OTHER  SESSIONS. 

Racine,  Wis.,  reports  a  continuation  school  in  the  afternoons 
during  the  regular  school  year,  which  was  attended  by  unemployed 
and  night  workers.     Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  conducted  a  special  day  session 


30  PUBLIC    FACILITIES    FOR    EDUCATING    THE    ALIEX. 

for  aliens,  which  was  held  during  the  regular  day-school  hours  in 
the  high-school  building.  This  class  was  composed  of  a  number 
of  foreigners  over  the  age  of  20  and  up  to  50,  who  were  not  working 
and  who  were  glad  to  seize  this  opportunity  of  furthering  their  knowl- 
edge of  English.  The  class  continued  during  a  dull  industrial  period 
(Feb.  1  to  Apr.  1)  as  an  offshoot  of  the  regular  evening  classes. 

PUBLICITY  METHODS. 

Evening-school  authorities,  taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  do  not 
yet  seem  alive  to  the  necessity  of  bringing  their  schools  to  the  at- 
tention of  the  people  whom  they  ought  to  reach.  Too  frequently 
a  hit-or-miss  plan  is  followed,  if  indeed  publicity  is  not  neglected 
altogether.  "We  only  advertise  through  the  public  press,"  which 
fairly  typifies  the  attitude  characteristic  of  one  of  the  more  im- 
portant immigration  States,  is  unfortunately  more  than  many  a 
community  attempts  to  do.  Evening  classes  for  foreigners  are  chiefly 
intended  to  teach  English,  yet  too  frequently  the  only  notices  of  such 
classes  are  published  exclusively  in  English.  What  is  the  chance 
that  the  non-English-speaking  foreigner  will  profit  by  such  a  notice, 
whether  on  bulletin  board  or  in  the  public  press  3  Where  no  foreign- 
language  paper  is  issued  in  the  town,  it  is  possible  to  have  notices  in 
the  foreign  tongues  inserted  in  the  American  newspaper  (Ithaca, 
N.  Y.).     Too  little  use  is  made  of  the  foreign-language  press. 

Many  cities  and  towns  report  that  they  are  using  posters  in  the 
foreign  language  to  advertise  their  schools.  From  internal  evi- 
dence, it  is  apparent  that  most  of  these  places  refer  to  the  use  of  the 
"America  First,"  poster  which  was  sent  out  for  the  first  time  in  the 
fall  of  1915  by  the  Bureau  of  Education.  A  few  communities, 
however,  note  the  use  of  such  foreign-language  posters  before  this 
present  year  (notably  Fall  River, .  Fitchburg,  and  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.).  Posters  are  placed  in  "stores,  meat 
markets,  pool  rooms,  saloons,  and  factories"  (Madison,  Wis.),  on 
electric-light  poles  (Milwaukee,  Wis.),  and  in  street  cars  (Jackson, 

Mich.) . 

Cooperating  committees  of  foreigners  are  called  upon  in  a  few 
instances  to  encourage  evening-school  attendance,  but  this  means  of 
publicity  seems  on  the  whole  to  have  been  neglected.  Neighborhood 
centers  in  public  school  buildings  are  surprisingly  few.  One  super- 
intendent, who  fortunately  is  not  typical,  expresses  himself  veiy  for- 
cibly on  this  point:  "We  do  not  encourage  foreigners'  societies  to 
meet  in  school  buildings.  Our  school  buildings  are  for  Americans 
only." 

Children  in  the  public  schools  are  frequently  used  as  messengers 
to  carry  invitations  to  parents  and  other  adult  members  of  their 


PRESENT    CONDITIONS.  31 

households,  Chicago  having  distributed  400,000  handbills  by  this 
means  in  1914-15.  Church  cooperation  is  utilized  to  some  extent. 
In  Trenton,  N.  J.,  for  instance: 

Announcements  are  made  in  all  the  churches  and  Sunday  schools,  being  especially- 
emphasized  in  Catholic  churches  by  request  of  the  bishop.  Announcements  are  also 
made  in  day  public  and  parochial  schools.  Circular  letters  are  sent  to  employers, 
labor  organizations,  foreigners'  clubs  and  societies,  and  civic  clubs. 

Iii  Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  "notices  are  put  in  all  the  pay  rolls  in  the  city." 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  employs  a  home  visitor,  while  certain  Pennsylvania 
towns  (Cokeburg,  East  Pittsburgh,  and  Ford  City)  have  a  personal 
house-to-house  canvass  made  by  visitors  who  speak  the  language 
of  the  foreigners. 

So  far  as  is  known  seven  cities  and  towns  in  the  country  (Boston 
and  Waltham,  Mass.,  Providence  and  Warren,  R.  I.,  and  Manitowoc, 
Superior,  and  Two  Rivers,  Wis.)  utilize  the  moving-picture  theaters 
to  show  slides  announcing  their  evening  schools. 

In  Boston — 

posters  are  placed  on  the  dashboards  of  electric  cars.  Motion-picture  establishments 
announce  the  opening  of  evening  schools,  local  and  foreign  newspapers  are  used  in 
gaining  publicity,  individual  principals  circulate  notices  and  handbills  printed  in 
the  various  languages,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  secure.the  cooperation  of  all  existing 
agencies  that  are  interested  in  the  training  of  immigrants  for  citizenship. 

The  extensive  and  successful  publicity  campaigns  carried  on  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  and  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  are  significant  of  what  can  be 
done. 

Detroit  is  a  typical  immigration  city.  Attracted  by  the  lure  of 
heavy  demands  for  labor  and  good  wages,  foreign  workmen  had 
flocked  there  by  the  scores  of  thousands.  Business  men  were  quick 
to  recognize  the  need  for  Americanizing  these  people,  and  they 
wisely  turned  to  the  evening  schools  as  the  means  for  accomplishing 
this  purpose.  Backed  by  the  chamber  of  commerce,  a  city-wide 
campaign  was  opened,  with  cooperation  of  all  available  forces  as  the 
watchword.  Employers  of  labor,  churches,  priests  and  pastors, 
municipal  departments,  social  and  philanthropic  organizations,  em- 
ployment agencies,  clubs,  neighboring  educational  authorities,  inter- 
ested individuals,  the  foreign-language  and  the  English  press,  all 
pulled  together.  As  a  first  result,  an  increase  of  153  per  cent  in  the 
registration  of  evening  schools  was  reported.  It  is  yet  too  early  to 
express  an  opinion  as  to  the  ultimate  effects  of  this  campaign.  Such 
initial  success,  however,  is  a  harbinger  of  greater  effectiveness  for  the 
future.1 


i  "Americanizing  a  City,"  a  pamphlet  prepared  for  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  general  distribution, 
contains  an  account  of  the  Detroit  campaign. 


32  PUBLIC    FACILITIES   FOR   EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN. 

COOPERATION  WITH  NATURALIZATION  AUTHORITIES. 

Much  work  remains  to  be  done  in  urging  the  schools  to  greater 
efforts  in  reaching  applicants  for  naturalization  and  in  gathering 
them  into  the  evening  school.  A  few  places  send  the  regular  truant 
officer,  armed  with  the  Government  blanks,  to  the  homes  of  appli- 
cants for  naturalization.  These  applicants  are  thus  urged  through 
personal  solicitation  to  attend  the  night  school.  Ninety  days,  how- 
ever, is  far  too  short  a  time  to  accomplish  much  with  either  English 
or  citizenship  instruction.  Some  means  must  be  devised  of  catching 
these  prospective  citizens  earlier.  School  authorities  are  certainly 
derelict  in  looking  up  even  these  applicants  for  citizenship.  Only 
213  cities  out  of  438  reporting  on  this  point  make  any  definite  effort 
to  get  into  touch  with  the  applicants  for  naturalization,  and  these 
returns  cover  practically  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  which 
have  evening  schools  for  foreigners.  Some  (132)  state  definitely  that 
they  do  no  tiling  along  this  line,  while  the  others  (93)  fail  to  report. 
It  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  they,  too,  are  doing  nothing. 

Despite  the  efforts  of  the  Federal  Government  to  bring  about  a 
closer  cooperation  between  the  naturalization  courts  and  the  schools, 
results  are  still  far  from  satisfactory.  Fewer  than  20  per  cent  of 
these  438  cities  report  any  recognition  accorded  English  and  civics 
classes  by  naturalization  clerks.  Ignorance  on  the  part  of  school 
authorities  with  reference  to  the  practice  of  naturalization  clerks  in 
recognizing  school  work  is  somewhat  striking.  Some  confess  frankly 
that  they  have  no  knowledge  on  the  subject,  while  others  disregard 
the  question,  the  inference  naturally  being  that  they  are  not  in  touch 
with  this  court  procedure. 

Los  Angeles,  on  the  other  hand,  has  developed  a  unique  cooperation 
with  the  naturalization  courts.  Every  applicant  who  attends  a 
citizenship  class  and  meets  a  certain  scholastic  standard  is  given  a 
certificate  which  is  recognized  by  the  naturalization  court.  Period- 
ically a  formal  welcome  is  given  to  the  new  citizens  under  the  auspices 
of  the  courts,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  board  of  education  and 
civic  and  patriotic  organizations.  With  the  judge  of  the  court  as 
presiding  officer,  each  naturalization  applicant  is  called  up  indi- 
vidually and  is  publicly  awarded  his  certificate  of  citizenship. 

There  is  need,  however,  for  wider  cooperation  between  the  courts 
of  naturalization  and  the  schools,  for  the  schools  can  be  of  invaluable 
assistance  to  the  court  officials  if  an  effective  plan  of  cooperation  can 
only  be  evolved. 

The  citizenship  reception  in  Philadelphia,  May,  1915,  at  which  the 
newly  naturalized  citizens  were  addressed  by  President  Wilson,  is 
still  fresh  in  people's  minds.  Other  cities  have  likewise  done  their 
part  in  holding  similar  gatherings  to  welcome  the  new  citizens,  and 
in  giving  them  some  realization  of  the  solemnity  of  the  step  they  are 
taking. 


STATISTICAL  TABLES. 


Table  1.— Foreign-born  white  population,  by  States,  with  per  cent  of  total  white  popu- 
lation, census  of  1910. 


States. 


United  States 


New  York 

Pennsylvania. 

Illinois 

Massachusetts. 

New  Jersey 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

California 

Wisconsin 

Connecticut . . . 

Iowa 

Washington... 

Texas 

Missouri 

Rhode  Island . 

Nebraska 

Indiana 

North  Dakota. 

Kansas 

Colorado 

Maine 

Maryland 

Oregon 


Number. 


13, 345, 515 


729, 272 
436, 719 
202, 560 
051, 050 
658, 188 
597, 245 
595, 524 
513,010 
517, 250 
512, 569 
328, 759 
273,  484 
211,197 
239, 984 
22s,  sort 
178,025 
175, 865 
159,322 
156, 158 
155, 190 
126, 851 
110,133 
101,174 
103, 001 


Per  cent. 


States. 


16.3 


30.4 
19.3 
21.8 
31.6 
26.9 
12.8 
21.4 
26.4 
22.9 
22.1 
29.9 
12.4 
21.7 

7.5 

7.3 
33.4 
14.9 

6.0 
27.4 

8.3 
16.2 
14.9 

9.8 
15.7 


South  Dakota 

New  Hampshire 

Montana 

Utah 

West  Virginia 

Louisiana 

Vermont 

Arizona 

Idaho 

Oklahoma 

Kentucky 

Florida 

Wyoming 

Virginia 

District  of  Columbia 

New  Mexico 

Alabama 

Tennessee 

Nevada 

Delaware 

Arkansas 

Georgia 

Mississippi 

South  Carolina 

North  Carolina 


Number. 

Per  cent. 

100, 628 

17.8 

96, 558 

22.5 

91,644 

25.4 

63, 393 

17.3 

57,072 

4.9 

51, 782 

5.5 

49,  861 

14.1 

46,  824 

27.3 

40,  427 

12.7 

40,084 

2.8 

40,053 

2.0 

33,842 

7.6 

27,118 

19.3 

26, 628 

1.9 

24,351 

10.3 

22, 654 

7.4 

18,956 

1.5 

18,459 

1.1 

17, 999 

24.2 

17, 420 

10.2 

16, 909 

1.5 

15,072 

1.1 

9,3S9 
6,054 

1.2 

.9 

5,942 

.4 

Table  2. — Illiteracy  among  foreign-born  whites,  with  per  cent  cf  total  foreign-born  white 

population,  census  of  1910. 

[Figures  for  10  years  of  age  and  over.] 


States. 


Number. 


United  States 

New  York 

Pennsylvania. . . . 

Massachusetts 

Illinois 

New  Jersey 

Texas 

Ohio 

Michigan 

California 

Connecticut 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Rhode  Island 

Virginia 

Missouri 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Maine 

Colorado 

Kansas 

Arizona 

New  Hampshire. 
West  Virginia. .  - 
Nebraska 


1,650,361 


Per  cent. 


362, 065 
2/"9,668 
129,412 
117,571 
93,551 
67, 295 
66, 887 
54,113 
50, 292 
49, 202 
43, 662 
40, 627 
29,  781 
25, 639 
22,  631 
IS,  300 
16, 894 
14,394 
13, 897 
13, 787 
13,758 
13,485 
13,075 
12,264 


12.7 


13.7 
20.1 
12.7 
10.1 
14.7 
30.0 
11.5 

9.3 
10.0 
15.4 

8.7 

7.6 
17.3 

9.2 
10.1 
11.7 

6.3 
13.7 
11.3 
10.5 
31.5 
14.5 
23.9 

7.1 


States. 


Louisiana 

Maryland 

Washington 

North  Dakota 

Montana 

New  Mexico 

Vermont 

Oregon 

South  Dakota 

Oklahoma 

Utah 

Florida 

Delaware 

Kentucky 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Alabama 

Disl  i  ict  of  Columbia 

Tennessee 

Arkansas 

Mississippi 

Nevada 

Georgia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 


Number. 


12, 
12, 

11, 


085 
04  7 
233 
474 
445 
580 
239 
120 
896 
828 
636 
390 
359 
300 
742 
548 
063 
944 
488 
466 
364 
344 
875 
477 
399 


Per  cent. 


24.0 

11.9 

4.8 

6.3 

9.4 

31.0 

13.1 

6.1 

5.0 


5.9 
10.5 
19.8 

8.3 

6 

9 
11 


9 

7 
3 
8.2 
8.3 
8.9 
15.1 
7.6 
6.0 
8.3 
6.8 


33 


34 


PUBLIC   FACILITIES   FOR  EDUCATING   THE   ALIEN". 


Table  3. — Inability  to  speak  English  among  foreign-born  whites,  with  per  cent  of  total 
foreign-born  white  population,  census  of  1910. 

[Figures  for  10  years  of  age  and  over.] 


States. 


United  States 

New  York 

Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

Massachusetts 

Ohio 

New  Jersey 

Texas 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

California 

Connecticut 

Indiana 

Missouri 

Iowa 

Rhode  Island 

North  Dakota' 

Nebraska 

Kansas 

West  Virginia 

New  Hampshire. . 

Washington 

Arizona 

Colorado 


Number. 


2,953,011 


597;,  012 

466, 825 

266, 557 

171,014 

163, 722 

i:,:i,m.i 

125,  765 

120, 665 

102, 286 

89, 850 

74, 706 

64,  201 

40,  731 

37, 747 

37, 169 

36, 961 

33, 491 

29, 519 

28, 358 

27, 461 

26, 783 

25, 568 

25, 072 

22, 610 


Per  cent. 


22.8 


22.7 
33.6 
22.8 
16.8 
28.3 
24.2 
56.0 
24.0 
17.6 
16.8 
14.8 
20.1 
26.2 
16.9 
13.8 
21.5 
22.3 
17.1 
21.5 
50.3 
28.8 
10.9 
57.3 
18.4 


States 


Maine 

South  Dakota 

Maryland 

Florida 

Montana 

Oregon 

New  Mexico 

Louisiana 

Vermont 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

Wyoming.. 

Idaho 

Delaware 

Virginia 

Kentucky 

Nevada 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Mississippi 

District  of  Columbia 

Georgia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 


Number. 


19, 
18, 

17, 

H, 

13, 

13, 

11, 

11, 

8, 

8, 

7, 

5, 

5, 

4, 

3, 

3, 

3, 

3, 

2, 

1, 

1, 

1, 


589 
486 
544 
049 
718 
531 
776 
547 
342 
129 
975 
970 
805 
824 
983 
816 
557 
028 
741 
648 
491 
349 
953 
779 
447 


Per  cent. 


18.6 
18.8 
17.4 
43.7 
15.3 
13.4 
55.5 
22.9 
17.5 
13.1 
20.4 
22.6 
14.7 
28.5 
15.5 

9.6 
20.0 
16.6 
16.7 

9.2 
16.5 

5.7 

6.5 
13.6 

7.6 


Table  4. — School  attendance  among  foreign-born  whites,  by  age.  groups,  census  I'D  10. 


States. 


United  States . 

New  York 

Pennsylvania 

Massachusetts 

Illinois 

New  Jersey 

Ohio 

Michigan 

California 

Connecticut 

Minnesota 

Wisconsin 

Rhode  Island 

Texas 

Washington 

North  Dakota 

Missouri 

Maine 

Iowa 

Colorado 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

Indiana 

Maryland 

Kansas 

South  Dakota 

Oregon 

Vermont 

Arizona 

Montana 

Utah 

West  Virginia 

Florida 

Louisiana 

Oklahoma 

Virginia 

District  of  Columbia 

New  Mexico 

Idaho 

Alabama 


Total 
number. 


651,506 


187, 

69, 

57, 

50, 

35, 

26, 

25 

19, 

17, 

17, 

15, 

10, 

10, 

9, 

9, 

7, 

7, 

6, 

5, 

5, 

5, 

5, 

5, 

4, 

3, 
3. 
3. 
2, 
2, 
2. 
2, 

1; 

I: 

i: 

i. 


034 
257 
499 
451 
001 
412 
281 
203 
563 
469 
889 
285 
176 
672 
494 
834 
165 
755 
927 
528 
602 
210 
015 
538 
644 
416 
380 
783 
716 
520 
259 
838 
718 
554 
334 
195 
166 
128 
897 


10  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


15  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


446,745  138,253 


131,541 

45, 640 

40, 404 

32, 402 

23,016 

16,987 

17.374 

13,406 

11,536 

12,574 

10,397 

7,183 

7,714 

6,883 

7,326 

5,123 

4,871 

4,573 

4,090 

3,780 

3,827 

3,365 

3,323 

3,168 

2,766 

2,407 

2,248 

1,886 

1,906 

1,796 

1,448 

1,202 

1,201 

1,152 

938 

886 

772 

819 

622 


43,492 

10, 804 

14,117 

9,153 

6,036 

4,342 

5,328 

4,716 

3,117 

4,948 

2,934 

1,746 

2,200 

2,348 

2, 563 

1, 542 

1,409 

1,735 

1,261 

1,419 

926 

1,172 

1,021 

1,066 

1,105 

920 

664 

423 

697 

629 

360 

346 

376 

424 

314 

397 

243 

323 

187 


21  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


35, 614 


9,603 

2,894 

2,976 

3,463 

1,766 

1,184 

1,357 

1,146 

690 

1,640 

1,039 

479 

413 

564 

535 

567 

240 

671 

305 

509 

150 

537 

439 

2*8 

300 

242 

70 

37 

161 

182 

80 

91 

84 

101 

73 

161 

26 

81 

44 


STATISTICAL   TABLES. 


35 


Table  4. — School  attendance  among  foreign-born  whites,  by  age  groups,  census  1910 — ■ 

Continued. 


States. 


Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Wyoming 

Georgia 

Delaware 

Arkansas 

Mississippi 

North  Carolina 

Nevada 

South  Carolina 


Total 
number. 


896 
839 
848 
721 
627 
539 
371 
302 
283 
222 


10  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


631 
622 
538 
536 
417 
392 
265 
232 
197 
163 


15  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


274 

236 

166 

206 

88 

152 

98 

88 

88 

54 


21  years  of 

age  and 

over. 


121 
51 
47 
55 
28 
43 
26 
18 
24 
13 


Table  5 .—Foreiqn-born  whites:  Number  unable  to  speak  English,  illiterate,  and  attend- 
ing school,  by  age  groups  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  census  1910. 


Age  limits. 


Unable 
to  speak 
English. 


Illiterate. 


Attending 
school. 


10  years  and  over 
1 5  years  and  over 
21  years  and  over 


2,953,011 
2, 896, 606 
2, 565, 612 


1,650,361 
1,657,677 
1,546,535 


446, 745 

138,  253 

35, 614 


The  large  majority  of  those  unable  to  speak  English  and  the  illit- 
erate are  found  in  the  "  over  21  years  of  age  "  group.  The  number  in 
the  same  group  attending  school  is  almost  insignificant. 


36 


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37 


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